Elementary surveying : an introduction to geomatics / Charles D. Ghilani, professor of Engineering, the Pennsylvania State University, Paul R. Wolf, Professor Emeritus, Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison.

By: Contributor(s): Material type: TextTextPublisher: Boston : Pearson, [2015]Edition: Fourteenth editionDescription: xxi, 936 pages : illustrations ; 24 cmContent type:
  • text
Media type:
  • unmediated
Carrier type:
  • volume
ISBN:
  • 9780133758887
  • 0133758885
Subject(s): DDC classification:
  • 526.9 23
LOC classification:
  • TA545 .G395 2015
Contents:
Machine generated contents note: 1. INTRODUCTION -- 1.1. Definition of Surveying -- 1.2. Geomatics -- 1.3. History of Surveying -- 1.4. Geodetic and Plane Surveys -- 1.5. Importance of Surveying -- 1.6. Specialized Types of Surveys -- 1.7. Surveying Safety -- 1.8. Land and Geographic Information Systems -- 1.9. Federal Surveying and Mapping Agencies -- 1.10. The Surveying Profession -- 1.11. Professional Surveying Organizations -- 1.12. Surveying on the Internet -- 1.13. Future Challenges in Surveying -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 2. UNITS, SIGNIFICANT FIGURES, AND FIELD NOTES -- pt. I UNITS AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES -- 2.1. Introduction -- 2.2. Units of Measurement -- 2.3. International System of Units (SI) -- 2.4. Significant Figures -- 2.5. Rounding Off Numbers -- pt. II FIELD NOTES -- 2.6. Field Notes -- 2.7. General Requirements of Handwritten Field Notes -- 2.8. Types of Field Books -- 2.9. Kinds of Notes -- 2.10. Arrangements of Notes -- 2.11. Suggestions for Recording Notes -- 2.12. Introduction to Survey Controllers -- 2.13. Transfer of Files from Survey Controllers -- 2.14. Digital Data File Management -- 2.15. Advantages and Disadvantages of Survey Controllers -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 3. THEORY OF ERRORS IN OBSERVATIONS -- 3.1. Introduction -- 3.2. Direct and Indirect Observations -- 3.3. Errors in Measurements -- 3.4. Mistakes -- 3.5. Sources of Errors in Making Observations -- 3.6. Types of Errors -- 3.7. Precision and Accuracy -- 3.8. Eliminating Mistakes and Systematic Errors -- 3.9. Probability -- 3.10. Most Probable Value -- 3.11. Residuals -- 3.12. Occurrence of Random Errors -- 3.13. General Laws of Probability -- 3.14. Measures of Precision -- 3.15. Interpretation of Standard Deviation -- 3.16. The 50, 90, and 95 Percent Errors -- 3.17. Error Propagation -- 3.18. Applications -- 3.19. Conditional Adjustment of Observations -- 3.20. Weights of Observations -- 3.21. Least-Squares Adjustment -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 4. LEVELING -- THEORY, METHODS, AND EQUIPMENT -- pt. I LEVELING -- THEORY AND METHODS -- 4.1. Introduction -- 4.2. Definitions -- 4.3. North American Vertical Datum -- 4.4. Curvature and Refraction -- 4.5. Methods for Determining Differences in Elevation -- pt. II EQUIPMENT FOR DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING -- 4.6. Categories of Levels -- 4.7. Telescopes -- 4.8. Level Vials -- 4.9. Tilting Levels -- 4.10. Automatic Levels -- 4.11. Digital Levels -- 4.12. Tripods -- 4.13. Hand Level -- 4.14. Level Rods -- 4.15. Testing and Adjusting Levels -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 5. LEVELING -- FIELD PROCEDURES AND COMPUTATIONS -- 5.1. Introduction -- 5.2. Carrying and Setting Up a Level -- 5.3. Duties of a Rodperson -- 5.4. Differential Leveling -- 5.5. Precision -- 5.6. Adjustments of Simple Level Circuits -- 5.7. Reciprocal Leveling -- 5.8. Three-Wire Leveling -- 5.9. Profile Leveling -- 5.10. Grid, Cross-Section, or Borrow-Pit Leveling -- 5.11. Use of the Hand Level -- 5.12. Sources of Error in Leveling -- 5.13. Mistakes -- 5.14. Reducing Errors and Eliminating Mistakes -- 5.15. Using Software -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 6. DISTANCE MEASUREMENT -- pt. I METHODS FOR MEASURING DISTANCES -- 6.1. Introduction -- 6.2. Summary of Methods for Making Linear Measurements -- 6.3. Pacing -- 6.4. Odometer Readings -- 6.5. Optical Rangefinders -- 6.6. Tacheometry -- 6.7. Subtense Bar -- pt. II DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS BY TAPING -- 6.8. Introduction to Taping -- 6.9. Taping Equipment and Accessories -- 6.10. Care of Taping Equipment -- 6.11. Taping on Level Ground -- 6.12. Horizontal Measurements on Sloping Ground -- 6.13. Slope Measurements -- 6.14. Sources of Error in Taping -- pt. III ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT -- 6.15. Introduction -- 6.16. Propagation of Electromagnetic Energy -- 6.17. Principles of Electronic Distance Measurement -- 6.18. Electro-Optical Instruments -- 6.19. Total Station Instruments -- 6.20. EDM Instruments Without Reflectors -- 6.21. Computing Horizontal Lengths from Slope Distances -- 6.22. Errors in Electronic Distance Measurement -- 6.23. Using Software -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 7. ANGLES, AZIMUTHS, AND BEARINGS -- 7.1. Introduction -- 7.2. Units of Angle Measurement -- 7.3. Kinds of Horizontal Angles -- 7.4. Direction of a Line -- 7.5. Azimuths -- 7.6. Bearings -- 7.7. Comparison of Azimuths and Bearings -- 7.8. Computing Azimuths -- 7.9. Computing Bearings -- 7.10. The Compass and the Earth's Magnetic Field -- 7.11. Magnetic Declination -- 7.12. Variations in Magnetic Declination -- 7.13. Software for Determining Magnetic Declination -- 7.14. Local Attraction -- 7.15. Typical Magnetic Declination Problems -- 7.16. Mistakes -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 8. TOTAL STATION INSTRUMENTS; ANGLE OBSERVATIONS -- pt. I TOTAL STATION INSTRUMENTS -- 8.1. Introduction -- 8.2. Characteristics of Total Station Instruments -- 8.3. Functions Performed by Total Station Instruments -- 8.4. Parts of a Total Station Instrument -- 8.5. Handling and Setting up a Total Station Instrument -- 8.6. Servo-Driven and Remotely Operated Total Station Instruments -- pt.
II ANGLE OBSERVATIONS -- 8.7. Relationship of Angles and Distances -- 8.8. Observing Horizontal Angles with Total Station Instruments -- 8.9. Observing Multiple Horizontal Angles by the Direction Method -- 8.10. Closing the Horizon -- 8.11. Observing Deflection Angles -- 8.12. Observing Azimuths -- 8.13. Observing Vertical Angles -- 8.14. Sights and Marks -- 8.15. Prolonging a Straight Line -- 8.16. Balancing-In -- 8.17. Random Traverse -- 8.18. Total Stations for Determining Elevation Differences -- 8.19. Adjustment of Total Station Instruments and Their Accessories -- 8.20. Sources of Error in Total Station Work -- 8.21. Propagation of Random Errors in Angle Observations -- 8.22. Mistakes -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 9. TRAVERSING -- 9.1. Introduction -- 9.2. Observation of Traverse Angles or Directions -- 9.3. Observation of Traverse Lengths -- 9.4. Selection of Traverse Stations -- 9.5. Referencing Traverse Stations -- 9.6. Traverse Field Notes -- 9.7. Angle Misclosure -- 9.8. Traversing with Total Station Instruments -- 9.9. Radial Traversing -- 9.10. Sources of Error in Traversing -- 9.11. Mistakes in Traversing -- Problems -- 10. TRAVERSE COMPUTATIONS -- 10.1. Introduction -- 10.2. Balancing Angles -- 10.3. Computation of Preliminary Azimuths or Bearings -- 10.4. Departures and Latitudes -- 10.5. Departure and Latitude Closure Conditions -- 10.6. Traverse Linear Misclosure and Relative Precision -- 10.7. Traverse Adjustment -- 10.8. Rectangular Coordinates -- 10.9. Alternative Methods for Making Traverse Computations -- 10.10. Inversing -- 10.11. Computing Final Adjusted Traverse Lengths and Directions -- 10.12. Coordinate Computations in Boundary Surveys -- 10.13. Use of Open Traverses -- 10.14. State Plane Coordinate Systems -- 10.15. Traverse Computations Using Computers -- 10.16. Locating Blunders in Traverse Observations -- 10.17. Mistakes in Traverse Computations -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 11. COORDINATE GEOMETRY IN SURVEYING CALCULATIONS -- 11.1. Introduction -- 11.2. Coordinate Forms of Equations for Lines and Circles -- 11.3. Perpendicular Distance from a Point to a Line -- 11.4. Intersection of Two Lines, Both Having Known Directions -- 11.5. Intersection of a Line with a Circle -- 11.6. Intersection of Two Circles -- 11.7. Three-Point Resection -- 11.8. Two-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation -- 11.9. Inaccessible Point Problem -- 11.10. Three-Dimensional Two-Point Resection -- 11.11. Software -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 12. AREA -- 12.1. Introduction -- 12.2. Methods of Measuring Area -- 12.3. Area by Division into Simple Figures -- 12.4. Area by Offsets from Straight Lines -- 12.5. Area by Coordinates -- 12.6. Area by Double-Meridian Distance Method -- 12.7. Area of Parcels with Circular Boundaries -- 12.8. Partitioning of Lands -- 12.9. Area by Measurements from Maps -- 12.10. Software -- 12.11. Sources of Error in Determining Areas -- 12.12. Mistakes in Determining Areas -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 13. GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS -- INTRODUCTION AND PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION -- 13.1. Introduction -- 13.2. Overview of GPS -- 13.3. The GPS Signal -- 13.4. Reference Coordinate Systems -- 13.5. Fundamentals of Satellite Positioning -- 13.6. Errors in Observations -- 13.7. Differential Positioning -- 13.8. Kinematic Methods -- 13.9. Relative Positioning -- 13.10. Other Satellite Navigation Systems -- 13.11. The Future -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 14. GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS -- STATIC SURVEYS -- 14.1. Introduction -- 14.2. Field Procedures in Static GNSS Surveys -- 14.3. Planning Satellite Surveys -- 14.4. Performing Static Surveys -- 14.5. Data Processing and Analysis -- 14.6. Things to Consider -- 14.7. Sources of Errors in Satellite Surveys -- 14.8. Mistakes in Satellite Surveys -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 15. GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS -- KINEMATIC SURVEYS -- 15.1. Introduction -- 15.2. Planning of Kinematic Surveys -- 15.3. Initialization -- 15.4. Equipment Used in Kinematic Surveys -- 15.5. Methods Used in Kinematic Surveys -- 15.6. Performing Post-Processed Kinematic Surveys.
Note continued: 15.7. Communication in Real-Time Kinematic Surveys -- 15.8. Real-Time Networks -- 15.9. Performing Real-Time Kinematic Surveys -- 15.10. Machine Guidance and Control -- 15.11. Errors in Kinematic Surveys -- 15.12. Mistakes in Kinematic Surveys -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 16. ADJUSTMENTS BY LEAST SQUARES -- 16.1. Introduction -- 16.2. Fundamental Condition of Least Squares -- 16.3. Least-Squares Adjustment by the Observation Equation Method -- 16.4. Matrix Methods in Least-Squares Adjustment -- 16.5. Matrix Equations for Precisions of Adjusted Quantities -- 16.6. Least-Squares Adjustment of Leveling Circuits -- 16.7. Propagation of Errors -- 16.8. Least-Squares Adjustment of GNSS Baseline Vectors -- 16.9. Least-Squares Adjustment of Conventional Horizontal Plane Surveys -- 16.10. The Error Ellipse -- 16.11. Adjustment Procedures -- 16.12. Other Measures of Precision for Horizontal Stations -- 16.13. Software -- 16.14. Conclusions -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 17. MAPPING SURVEYS -- 17.1. Introduction -- 17.2. Basic Methods for Performing Mapping Surveys -- 17.3. Map Scale -- 17.4. Control for Mapping Surveys -- 17.5. Contours -- 17.6. Characteristics of Contours -- 17.7. Method of Locating Contours -- 17.8. Digital Elevation Models and Automated Contouring Systems -- 17.9. Basic Field Methods for Locating Topographic Details -- 17.10. Planning a Laser-Scanning Survey -- 17.11. Three-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation -- 17.12. Selection of Field Method -- 17.13. Working with Survey Controllers and Field-to-Finish Software -- 17.14. Hydrographic Surveys -- 17.15. Sources of Error in Mapping Surveys -- 17.16. Mistakes in Mapping Surveys -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 18. MAPPING -- 18.1. Introduction -- 18.2. Availability of Maps and Related Information -- 18.3. National Mapping Program -- 18.4. Accuracy Standards for Mapping -- 18.5. Manual and Computer-Aided Drafting Procedures -- 18.6. Map Design -- 18.7. Map Layout -- 18.8. Basic Map Plotting Procedures -- 18.9. Contour Interval -- 18.10. Plotting Contours -- 18.11. Lettering -- 18.12. Cartographic Map Elements -- 18.13. Drafting Materials -- 18.14. Automated Mapping and Computer-Aided Drafting Systems -- 18.15. Migrating Maps between Software Packages -- 18.16. Impacts of Modern Land and Geographic Information Systems on Mapping -- 18.17. Sources of Error in Mapping -- 18.18. Mistakes in Mapping -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 19. CONTROL SURVEYS AND GEODETIC REDUCTIONS -- 19.1. Introduction -- 19.2. The Ellipsoid and Geoid -- 19.3. The Conventional Terrestrial Pole -- 19.4. Geodetic Position and Ellipsoidal Radii of Curvature -- 19.5. Geoid Undulation and Deflection of the Vertical -- 19.6. U.S.
Reference Frames -- 19.7. Transforming Coordinates Between Reference Frames -- 19.8. Accuracy Standards and Specifications for Control Surveys -- 19.9. The National Spatial Reference System -- 19.10. Hierarchy of the National Horizontal-Control Network -- 19.11. Hierarchy of the National Vertical-Control Network -- 19.12. Control Point Descriptions -- 19.13. Field Procedures for Conventional Horizontal-Control Surveys -- 19.14. Field Procedures for Vertical-Control Surveys -- 19.15. Reduction of Field Observations to Their Geodetic Values -- 19.16. Geodetic Position Computations -- 19.17. The Local Geodetic Coordinate System -- 19.18. Three-Dimensional Coordinate Computations -- 19.19. Software -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 20. STATE PLANE COORDINATES AND OTHER MAP PROJECTIONS -- 20.1. Introduction -- 20.2. Projections Used In State Plane Coordinate Systems -- 20.3. Lambert Conformal Conic Projection -- 20.4. Transverse Mercator Projection -- 20.5. State Plane Coordinates in NAD27 and NAD83 -- 20.6. Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Lambert Conformal Conic System -- 20.7. Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Transverse Mercator System -- 20.8. Reduction of Distances and Angles to State Plane Coordinate Grids -- 20.9. Computing State Plane Coordinates of Traverse Stations -- 20.10. Surveys Extending from One Zone to Another -- 20.11. The Universal Transverse Mercator Projection -- 20.12. Other Map Projections -- 20.13. Map Projection Software -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 21. BOUNDARY SURVEYS -- 21.1. Introduction -- 21.2. Categories of Land Surveys -- 21.3. Historical Perspectives -- 21.4. Property Description by Metes and Bounds -- 21.5. Property Description by Block-and-Lot System -- 21.6. Property Description by Coordinates -- 21.7. Retracement Surveys -- 21.8. Subdivision Surveys -- 21.9. Partitioning Land -- 21.10. Registration of Title -- 21.11. Adverse Possession and Easements -- 21.12. Condominium Surveys -- 21.13. Geographic and Land Information Systems -- 21.14. Sources of Error in Boundary Surveys -- 21.15. Mistakes -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 22. SURVEYS OF THE PUBLIC LANDS -- 22.1. Introduction -- 22.2. Instructions for Surveys of the Public Lands -- 22.3. Initial Point -- 22.4. Principal Meridian -- 22.5. Baseline -- 22.6. Standard Parallels (Correction Lines) -- 22.7. Guide Meridians -- 22.8. Township Exteriors, Meridional (Range) Lines, and Latitudinal (Township) Lines -- 22.9. Designation of Townships -- 22.10. Subdivision of a Quadrangle into Townships -- 22.11. Subdivision of a Township into Sections -- 22.12. Subdivision of Sections -- 22.13. Fractional Sections -- 22.14. Notes -- 22.15. Outline of Subdivision Steps -- 22.16. Marking Corners -- 22.17. Witness Corners -- 22.18. Meander Corners -- 22.19. Lost and Obliterated Corners -- 22.20. Accuracy of Public Lands Surveys -- 22.21. Descriptions by Township, Section, and Smaller Subdivision -- 22.22. BLM Land Information System -- 22.23. Sources of Error -- 22.24. Mistakes -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 23. CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS -- 23.1. Introduction -- 23.2. Specialized Equipment for Construction Surveys -- 23.3. Horizontal and Vertical Control -- 23.4. Staking out a Pipeline -- 23.5. Staking Pipeline Grades -- 23.6. Staking out a Building -- 23.7. Staking out Highways -- 23.8. Other Construction Surveys -- 23.9. Construction Surveys Using Total Station Instruments -- 23.10. Construction Surveys Using GNSS Equipment -- 23.11. Machine Guidance and Control -- 23.12. As-Built Surveys with Laser Scanning -- 23.13. Sources of Error in Construction Surveys -- 23.14. Mistakes -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 24. HORIZONTAL CURVES -- 24.1. Introduction -- 24.2. Degree of Circular Curve -- 24.3. Definitions and Derivation of Circular Curve Formulas -- 24.4. Circular Curve Stationing -- 24.5. General Procedure of Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles -- 24.6. Computing Deflection Angles and Chords -- 24.7. Notes for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords -- 24.8. Detailed Procedures for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords -- 24.9. Setups on Curve -- 24.10. Metric Circular Curves by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords -- 24.11. Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Total Chords -- 24.12. Computation of Coordinates on a Circular Curve -- 24.13. Circular Curve Layout by Coordinates -- 24.14. Curve Stakeout Using GNSS Receivers and Robotic Total Stations -- 24.15. Circular Curve Layout by Offsets -- 24.16. Special Circular Curve Problems -- 24.17. Compound and Reverse Curves -- 24.18. Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves -- 24.19. Spirals -- 24.20. Computation of "As-Built" Circular Alignments -- 24.21. Sources of Error in Laying out Circular Curves -- 24.22. Mistakes -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 25. VERTICAL CURVES -- 25.1. Introduction -- 25.2. General Equation of a Vertical Parabolic Curve -- 25.3. Equation of an Equal Tangent Vertical Parabolic Curve -- 25.4. High or Low Point on a Vertical Curve -- 25.5. Vertical Curve Computations Using the Tangent-Offset Equation -- 25.6. Equal Tangent Property of a Parabola -- 25.7. Curve Computations by Proportion -- 25.8. Staking a Vertical Parabolic Curve -- 25.9. Machine Control in Grading Operations -- 25.10. Computations for an Unequal Tangent Vertical Curve -- 25.11. Designing a Curve to Pass Through a Fixed Point -- 25.12. Sight Distance -- 25.13. Sources of Error in Laying out Vertical Curves -- 25.14. Mistakes -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 26. VOLUMES -- 26.1. Introduction -- 26.2. Methods of Volume Measurement -- 26.3. The Cross-Section Method -- 26.4. Types of Cross-Sections -- 26.5. Average-End-Area Formula -- 26.6. Determining End Areas -- 26.7. Computing Slope Intercepts -- 26.8. Prismoidal Formula -- 26.9. Volume Computations -- 26.10. Unit-Area, or Borrow-Pit, Method -- 26.11. Contour-Area Method -- 26.12. Measuring Volumes of Water Discharge -- 26.13. Software -- 26.14. Sources of Error in Determining Volumes -- 26.15. Mistakes -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 27. PHOTOGRAMMETRY -- 27.1. Introduction -- 27.2. Uses of Photogrammetry -- 27.3. Aerial Cameras -- 27.4. Types of Aerial Photographs -- 27.5. Vertical Aerial Photographs -- 27.6. Scale of a Vertical Photograph -- 27.7. Ground Coordinates from a Single Vertical Photograph -- 27.8. Relief Displacement on a Vertical Photograph -- 27.9. Flying Height of a Vertical Photograph -- 27.10. Stereoscopic Parallax -- 27.11. Stereoscopic Viewing -- 27.12. Stereoscopic Measurement of Parallax.
Note continued: 27.13. Analytical Photogrammetry -- 27.14. Stereoscopic Plotting Instruments -- 27.15. Orthophotos -- 27.16. Ground Control for Photogrammetry -- 27.17. Flight Planning -- 27.18. Airborne Laser-Mapping Systems -- 27.19. Remote Sensing -- 27.20. Software -- 27.21. Sources of Error in Photogrammetry -- 27.22. Mistakes -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 28. INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS -- 28.1. Introduction -- 28.2. Land Information Systems -- 28.3. GIS Data Sources and Classifications -- 28.4. Spatial Data -- 28.5. Nonspatial Data -- 28.6. Data Format Conversions -- 28.7. Creating GIS Databases -- 28.8. Metadata -- 28.9. GIS Analytical Functions -- 28.10. GIS Applications -- 28.11. Data Sources -- Problems -- Bibliography -- APPENDIX A TAPE CORRECTION PROBLEMS -- A.1. Correcting Systematic Errors in Taping -- APPENDIX B EXAMPLE NOTEFORMS -- APPENDIX C ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS -- C.1. Introduction -- C.2. Overview of Usual Procedures for Astronomical Azimuth Determination -- C.3. Ephemerides -- C.4. Definitions -- C.5. Time -- C.6. Timing Observations -- C.7. Computations for Azimuth from Polaris Observations by the Hour Angle Method -- C.8. Azimuth from Solar Observations -- C.9. Importance of Precise Leveling -- APPENDIX D USING THE WORKSHEETS FROM THE COMPANION WEBSITE -- D.1. Introduction -- D.2. Using the Files -- D.3. Worksheets as an Aid in Learning -- APPENDIX E INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES -- E.1. Introduction -- E.2. Definition of a Matrix -- E.3. The Dimensions of a Marix -- E.4. The Transpose of a Matrix -- E.5. Matrix Addition -- E.6. Matrix Multiplication -- E.7. Matrix Inverse -- APPENDIX F U.S. STATE PLANE COORDINATE SYSTEM DEFINING PARAMETERS -- F.1. Introduction -- F.2. Defining Parameters for States Using the Lambert Conformal Conic Map Projection -- F.3. Defining Parameters for States Using the Transverse Mercator Map Projection -- APPENDIX G ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS.
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Includes bibliographical references and index.

Machine generated contents note: 1. INTRODUCTION -- 1.1. Definition of Surveying -- 1.2. Geomatics -- 1.3. History of Surveying -- 1.4. Geodetic and Plane Surveys -- 1.5. Importance of Surveying -- 1.6. Specialized Types of Surveys -- 1.7. Surveying Safety -- 1.8. Land and Geographic Information Systems -- 1.9. Federal Surveying and Mapping Agencies -- 1.10. The Surveying Profession -- 1.11. Professional Surveying Organizations -- 1.12. Surveying on the Internet -- 1.13. Future Challenges in Surveying -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 2. UNITS, SIGNIFICANT FIGURES, AND FIELD NOTES -- pt. I UNITS AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES -- 2.1. Introduction -- 2.2. Units of Measurement -- 2.3. International System of Units (SI) -- 2.4. Significant Figures -- 2.5. Rounding Off Numbers -- pt. II FIELD NOTES -- 2.6. Field Notes -- 2.7. General Requirements of Handwritten Field Notes -- 2.8. Types of Field Books -- 2.9. Kinds of Notes -- 2.10. Arrangements of Notes -- 2.11. Suggestions for Recording Notes -- 2.12. Introduction to Survey Controllers -- 2.13. Transfer of Files from Survey Controllers -- 2.14. Digital Data File Management -- 2.15. Advantages and Disadvantages of Survey Controllers -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 3. THEORY OF ERRORS IN OBSERVATIONS -- 3.1. Introduction -- 3.2. Direct and Indirect Observations -- 3.3. Errors in Measurements -- 3.4. Mistakes -- 3.5. Sources of Errors in Making Observations -- 3.6. Types of Errors -- 3.7. Precision and Accuracy -- 3.8. Eliminating Mistakes and Systematic Errors -- 3.9. Probability -- 3.10. Most Probable Value -- 3.11. Residuals -- 3.12. Occurrence of Random Errors -- 3.13. General Laws of Probability -- 3.14. Measures of Precision -- 3.15. Interpretation of Standard Deviation -- 3.16. The 50, 90, and 95 Percent Errors -- 3.17. Error Propagation -- 3.18. Applications -- 3.19. Conditional Adjustment of Observations -- 3.20. Weights of Observations -- 3.21. Least-Squares Adjustment -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 4. LEVELING -- THEORY, METHODS, AND EQUIPMENT -- pt. I LEVELING -- THEORY AND METHODS -- 4.1. Introduction -- 4.2. Definitions -- 4.3. North American Vertical Datum -- 4.4. Curvature and Refraction -- 4.5. Methods for Determining Differences in Elevation -- pt. II EQUIPMENT FOR DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING -- 4.6. Categories of Levels -- 4.7. Telescopes -- 4.8. Level Vials -- 4.9. Tilting Levels -- 4.10. Automatic Levels -- 4.11. Digital Levels -- 4.12. Tripods -- 4.13. Hand Level -- 4.14. Level Rods -- 4.15. Testing and Adjusting Levels -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 5. LEVELING -- FIELD PROCEDURES AND COMPUTATIONS -- 5.1. Introduction -- 5.2. Carrying and Setting Up a Level -- 5.3. Duties of a Rodperson -- 5.4. Differential Leveling -- 5.5. Precision -- 5.6. Adjustments of Simple Level Circuits -- 5.7. Reciprocal Leveling -- 5.8. Three-Wire Leveling -- 5.9. Profile Leveling -- 5.10. Grid, Cross-Section, or Borrow-Pit Leveling -- 5.11. Use of the Hand Level -- 5.12. Sources of Error in Leveling -- 5.13. Mistakes -- 5.14. Reducing Errors and Eliminating Mistakes -- 5.15. Using Software -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 6. DISTANCE MEASUREMENT -- pt. I METHODS FOR MEASURING DISTANCES -- 6.1. Introduction -- 6.2. Summary of Methods for Making Linear Measurements -- 6.3. Pacing -- 6.4. Odometer Readings -- 6.5. Optical Rangefinders -- 6.6. Tacheometry -- 6.7. Subtense Bar -- pt. II DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS BY TAPING -- 6.8. Introduction to Taping -- 6.9. Taping Equipment and Accessories -- 6.10. Care of Taping Equipment -- 6.11. Taping on Level Ground -- 6.12. Horizontal Measurements on Sloping Ground -- 6.13. Slope Measurements -- 6.14. Sources of Error in Taping -- pt. III ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT -- 6.15. Introduction -- 6.16. Propagation of Electromagnetic Energy -- 6.17. Principles of Electronic Distance Measurement -- 6.18. Electro-Optical Instruments -- 6.19. Total Station Instruments -- 6.20. EDM Instruments Without Reflectors -- 6.21. Computing Horizontal Lengths from Slope Distances -- 6.22. Errors in Electronic Distance Measurement -- 6.23. Using Software -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 7. ANGLES, AZIMUTHS, AND BEARINGS -- 7.1. Introduction -- 7.2. Units of Angle Measurement -- 7.3. Kinds of Horizontal Angles -- 7.4. Direction of a Line -- 7.5. Azimuths -- 7.6. Bearings -- 7.7. Comparison of Azimuths and Bearings -- 7.8. Computing Azimuths -- 7.9. Computing Bearings -- 7.10. The Compass and the Earth's Magnetic Field -- 7.11. Magnetic Declination -- 7.12. Variations in Magnetic Declination -- 7.13. Software for Determining Magnetic Declination -- 7.14. Local Attraction -- 7.15. Typical Magnetic Declination Problems -- 7.16. Mistakes -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 8. TOTAL STATION INSTRUMENTS; ANGLE OBSERVATIONS -- pt. I TOTAL STATION INSTRUMENTS -- 8.1. Introduction -- 8.2. Characteristics of Total Station Instruments -- 8.3. Functions Performed by Total Station Instruments -- 8.4. Parts of a Total Station Instrument -- 8.5. Handling and Setting up a Total Station Instrument -- 8.6. Servo-Driven and Remotely Operated Total Station Instruments -- pt.

II ANGLE OBSERVATIONS -- 8.7. Relationship of Angles and Distances -- 8.8. Observing Horizontal Angles with Total Station Instruments -- 8.9. Observing Multiple Horizontal Angles by the Direction Method -- 8.10. Closing the Horizon -- 8.11. Observing Deflection Angles -- 8.12. Observing Azimuths -- 8.13. Observing Vertical Angles -- 8.14. Sights and Marks -- 8.15. Prolonging a Straight Line -- 8.16. Balancing-In -- 8.17. Random Traverse -- 8.18. Total Stations for Determining Elevation Differences -- 8.19. Adjustment of Total Station Instruments and Their Accessories -- 8.20. Sources of Error in Total Station Work -- 8.21. Propagation of Random Errors in Angle Observations -- 8.22. Mistakes -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 9. TRAVERSING -- 9.1. Introduction -- 9.2. Observation of Traverse Angles or Directions -- 9.3. Observation of Traverse Lengths -- 9.4. Selection of Traverse Stations -- 9.5. Referencing Traverse Stations -- 9.6. Traverse Field Notes -- 9.7. Angle Misclosure -- 9.8. Traversing with Total Station Instruments -- 9.9. Radial Traversing -- 9.10. Sources of Error in Traversing -- 9.11. Mistakes in Traversing -- Problems -- 10. TRAVERSE COMPUTATIONS -- 10.1. Introduction -- 10.2. Balancing Angles -- 10.3. Computation of Preliminary Azimuths or Bearings -- 10.4. Departures and Latitudes -- 10.5. Departure and Latitude Closure Conditions -- 10.6. Traverse Linear Misclosure and Relative Precision -- 10.7. Traverse Adjustment -- 10.8. Rectangular Coordinates -- 10.9. Alternative Methods for Making Traverse Computations -- 10.10. Inversing -- 10.11. Computing Final Adjusted Traverse Lengths and Directions -- 10.12. Coordinate Computations in Boundary Surveys -- 10.13. Use of Open Traverses -- 10.14. State Plane Coordinate Systems -- 10.15. Traverse Computations Using Computers -- 10.16. Locating Blunders in Traverse Observations -- 10.17. Mistakes in Traverse Computations -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 11. COORDINATE GEOMETRY IN SURVEYING CALCULATIONS -- 11.1. Introduction -- 11.2. Coordinate Forms of Equations for Lines and Circles -- 11.3. Perpendicular Distance from a Point to a Line -- 11.4. Intersection of Two Lines, Both Having Known Directions -- 11.5. Intersection of a Line with a Circle -- 11.6. Intersection of Two Circles -- 11.7. Three-Point Resection -- 11.8. Two-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation -- 11.9. Inaccessible Point Problem -- 11.10. Three-Dimensional Two-Point Resection -- 11.11. Software -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 12. AREA -- 12.1. Introduction -- 12.2. Methods of Measuring Area -- 12.3. Area by Division into Simple Figures -- 12.4. Area by Offsets from Straight Lines -- 12.5. Area by Coordinates -- 12.6. Area by Double-Meridian Distance Method -- 12.7. Area of Parcels with Circular Boundaries -- 12.8. Partitioning of Lands -- 12.9. Area by Measurements from Maps -- 12.10. Software -- 12.11. Sources of Error in Determining Areas -- 12.12. Mistakes in Determining Areas -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 13. GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS -- INTRODUCTION AND PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION -- 13.1. Introduction -- 13.2. Overview of GPS -- 13.3. The GPS Signal -- 13.4. Reference Coordinate Systems -- 13.5. Fundamentals of Satellite Positioning -- 13.6. Errors in Observations -- 13.7. Differential Positioning -- 13.8. Kinematic Methods -- 13.9. Relative Positioning -- 13.10. Other Satellite Navigation Systems -- 13.11. The Future -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 14. GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS -- STATIC SURVEYS -- 14.1. Introduction -- 14.2. Field Procedures in Static GNSS Surveys -- 14.3. Planning Satellite Surveys -- 14.4. Performing Static Surveys -- 14.5. Data Processing and Analysis -- 14.6. Things to Consider -- 14.7. Sources of Errors in Satellite Surveys -- 14.8. Mistakes in Satellite Surveys -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 15. GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS -- KINEMATIC SURVEYS -- 15.1. Introduction -- 15.2. Planning of Kinematic Surveys -- 15.3. Initialization -- 15.4. Equipment Used in Kinematic Surveys -- 15.5. Methods Used in Kinematic Surveys -- 15.6. Performing Post-Processed Kinematic Surveys.

Note continued: 15.7. Communication in Real-Time Kinematic Surveys -- 15.8. Real-Time Networks -- 15.9. Performing Real-Time Kinematic Surveys -- 15.10. Machine Guidance and Control -- 15.11. Errors in Kinematic Surveys -- 15.12. Mistakes in Kinematic Surveys -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 16. ADJUSTMENTS BY LEAST SQUARES -- 16.1. Introduction -- 16.2. Fundamental Condition of Least Squares -- 16.3. Least-Squares Adjustment by the Observation Equation Method -- 16.4. Matrix Methods in Least-Squares Adjustment -- 16.5. Matrix Equations for Precisions of Adjusted Quantities -- 16.6. Least-Squares Adjustment of Leveling Circuits -- 16.7. Propagation of Errors -- 16.8. Least-Squares Adjustment of GNSS Baseline Vectors -- 16.9. Least-Squares Adjustment of Conventional Horizontal Plane Surveys -- 16.10. The Error Ellipse -- 16.11. Adjustment Procedures -- 16.12. Other Measures of Precision for Horizontal Stations -- 16.13. Software -- 16.14. Conclusions -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 17. MAPPING SURVEYS -- 17.1. Introduction -- 17.2. Basic Methods for Performing Mapping Surveys -- 17.3. Map Scale -- 17.4. Control for Mapping Surveys -- 17.5. Contours -- 17.6. Characteristics of Contours -- 17.7. Method of Locating Contours -- 17.8. Digital Elevation Models and Automated Contouring Systems -- 17.9. Basic Field Methods for Locating Topographic Details -- 17.10. Planning a Laser-Scanning Survey -- 17.11. Three-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation -- 17.12. Selection of Field Method -- 17.13. Working with Survey Controllers and Field-to-Finish Software -- 17.14. Hydrographic Surveys -- 17.15. Sources of Error in Mapping Surveys -- 17.16. Mistakes in Mapping Surveys -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 18. MAPPING -- 18.1. Introduction -- 18.2. Availability of Maps and Related Information -- 18.3. National Mapping Program -- 18.4. Accuracy Standards for Mapping -- 18.5. Manual and Computer-Aided Drafting Procedures -- 18.6. Map Design -- 18.7. Map Layout -- 18.8. Basic Map Plotting Procedures -- 18.9. Contour Interval -- 18.10. Plotting Contours -- 18.11. Lettering -- 18.12. Cartographic Map Elements -- 18.13. Drafting Materials -- 18.14. Automated Mapping and Computer-Aided Drafting Systems -- 18.15. Migrating Maps between Software Packages -- 18.16. Impacts of Modern Land and Geographic Information Systems on Mapping -- 18.17. Sources of Error in Mapping -- 18.18. Mistakes in Mapping -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 19. CONTROL SURVEYS AND GEODETIC REDUCTIONS -- 19.1. Introduction -- 19.2. The Ellipsoid and Geoid -- 19.3. The Conventional Terrestrial Pole -- 19.4. Geodetic Position and Ellipsoidal Radii of Curvature -- 19.5. Geoid Undulation and Deflection of the Vertical -- 19.6. U.S.

Reference Frames -- 19.7. Transforming Coordinates Between Reference Frames -- 19.8. Accuracy Standards and Specifications for Control Surveys -- 19.9. The National Spatial Reference System -- 19.10. Hierarchy of the National Horizontal-Control Network -- 19.11. Hierarchy of the National Vertical-Control Network -- 19.12. Control Point Descriptions -- 19.13. Field Procedures for Conventional Horizontal-Control Surveys -- 19.14. Field Procedures for Vertical-Control Surveys -- 19.15. Reduction of Field Observations to Their Geodetic Values -- 19.16. Geodetic Position Computations -- 19.17. The Local Geodetic Coordinate System -- 19.18. Three-Dimensional Coordinate Computations -- 19.19. Software -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 20. STATE PLANE COORDINATES AND OTHER MAP PROJECTIONS -- 20.1. Introduction -- 20.2. Projections Used In State Plane Coordinate Systems -- 20.3. Lambert Conformal Conic Projection -- 20.4. Transverse Mercator Projection -- 20.5. State Plane Coordinates in NAD27 and NAD83 -- 20.6. Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Lambert Conformal Conic System -- 20.7. Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Transverse Mercator System -- 20.8. Reduction of Distances and Angles to State Plane Coordinate Grids -- 20.9. Computing State Plane Coordinates of Traverse Stations -- 20.10. Surveys Extending from One Zone to Another -- 20.11. The Universal Transverse Mercator Projection -- 20.12. Other Map Projections -- 20.13. Map Projection Software -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 21. BOUNDARY SURVEYS -- 21.1. Introduction -- 21.2. Categories of Land Surveys -- 21.3. Historical Perspectives -- 21.4. Property Description by Metes and Bounds -- 21.5. Property Description by Block-and-Lot System -- 21.6. Property Description by Coordinates -- 21.7. Retracement Surveys -- 21.8. Subdivision Surveys -- 21.9. Partitioning Land -- 21.10. Registration of Title -- 21.11. Adverse Possession and Easements -- 21.12. Condominium Surveys -- 21.13. Geographic and Land Information Systems -- 21.14. Sources of Error in Boundary Surveys -- 21.15. Mistakes -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 22. SURVEYS OF THE PUBLIC LANDS -- 22.1. Introduction -- 22.2. Instructions for Surveys of the Public Lands -- 22.3. Initial Point -- 22.4. Principal Meridian -- 22.5. Baseline -- 22.6. Standard Parallels (Correction Lines) -- 22.7. Guide Meridians -- 22.8. Township Exteriors, Meridional (Range) Lines, and Latitudinal (Township) Lines -- 22.9. Designation of Townships -- 22.10. Subdivision of a Quadrangle into Townships -- 22.11. Subdivision of a Township into Sections -- 22.12. Subdivision of Sections -- 22.13. Fractional Sections -- 22.14. Notes -- 22.15. Outline of Subdivision Steps -- 22.16. Marking Corners -- 22.17. Witness Corners -- 22.18. Meander Corners -- 22.19. Lost and Obliterated Corners -- 22.20. Accuracy of Public Lands Surveys -- 22.21. Descriptions by Township, Section, and Smaller Subdivision -- 22.22. BLM Land Information System -- 22.23. Sources of Error -- 22.24. Mistakes -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 23. CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS -- 23.1. Introduction -- 23.2. Specialized Equipment for Construction Surveys -- 23.3. Horizontal and Vertical Control -- 23.4. Staking out a Pipeline -- 23.5. Staking Pipeline Grades -- 23.6. Staking out a Building -- 23.7. Staking out Highways -- 23.8. Other Construction Surveys -- 23.9. Construction Surveys Using Total Station Instruments -- 23.10. Construction Surveys Using GNSS Equipment -- 23.11. Machine Guidance and Control -- 23.12. As-Built Surveys with Laser Scanning -- 23.13. Sources of Error in Construction Surveys -- 23.14. Mistakes -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 24. HORIZONTAL CURVES -- 24.1. Introduction -- 24.2. Degree of Circular Curve -- 24.3. Definitions and Derivation of Circular Curve Formulas -- 24.4. Circular Curve Stationing -- 24.5. General Procedure of Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles -- 24.6. Computing Deflection Angles and Chords -- 24.7. Notes for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords -- 24.8. Detailed Procedures for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords -- 24.9. Setups on Curve -- 24.10. Metric Circular Curves by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords -- 24.11. Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Total Chords -- 24.12. Computation of Coordinates on a Circular Curve -- 24.13. Circular Curve Layout by Coordinates -- 24.14. Curve Stakeout Using GNSS Receivers and Robotic Total Stations -- 24.15. Circular Curve Layout by Offsets -- 24.16. Special Circular Curve Problems -- 24.17. Compound and Reverse Curves -- 24.18. Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves -- 24.19. Spirals -- 24.20. Computation of "As-Built" Circular Alignments -- 24.21. Sources of Error in Laying out Circular Curves -- 24.22. Mistakes -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 25. VERTICAL CURVES -- 25.1. Introduction -- 25.2. General Equation of a Vertical Parabolic Curve -- 25.3. Equation of an Equal Tangent Vertical Parabolic Curve -- 25.4. High or Low Point on a Vertical Curve -- 25.5. Vertical Curve Computations Using the Tangent-Offset Equation -- 25.6. Equal Tangent Property of a Parabola -- 25.7. Curve Computations by Proportion -- 25.8. Staking a Vertical Parabolic Curve -- 25.9. Machine Control in Grading Operations -- 25.10. Computations for an Unequal Tangent Vertical Curve -- 25.11. Designing a Curve to Pass Through a Fixed Point -- 25.12. Sight Distance -- 25.13. Sources of Error in Laying out Vertical Curves -- 25.14. Mistakes -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 26. VOLUMES -- 26.1. Introduction -- 26.2. Methods of Volume Measurement -- 26.3. The Cross-Section Method -- 26.4. Types of Cross-Sections -- 26.5. Average-End-Area Formula -- 26.6. Determining End Areas -- 26.7. Computing Slope Intercepts -- 26.8. Prismoidal Formula -- 26.9. Volume Computations -- 26.10. Unit-Area, or Borrow-Pit, Method -- 26.11. Contour-Area Method -- 26.12. Measuring Volumes of Water Discharge -- 26.13. Software -- 26.14. Sources of Error in Determining Volumes -- 26.15. Mistakes -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 27. PHOTOGRAMMETRY -- 27.1. Introduction -- 27.2. Uses of Photogrammetry -- 27.3. Aerial Cameras -- 27.4. Types of Aerial Photographs -- 27.5. Vertical Aerial Photographs -- 27.6. Scale of a Vertical Photograph -- 27.7. Ground Coordinates from a Single Vertical Photograph -- 27.8. Relief Displacement on a Vertical Photograph -- 27.9. Flying Height of a Vertical Photograph -- 27.10. Stereoscopic Parallax -- 27.11. Stereoscopic Viewing -- 27.12. Stereoscopic Measurement of Parallax.

Note continued: 27.13. Analytical Photogrammetry -- 27.14. Stereoscopic Plotting Instruments -- 27.15. Orthophotos -- 27.16. Ground Control for Photogrammetry -- 27.17. Flight Planning -- 27.18. Airborne Laser-Mapping Systems -- 27.19. Remote Sensing -- 27.20. Software -- 27.21. Sources of Error in Photogrammetry -- 27.22. Mistakes -- Problems -- Bibliography -- 28. INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS -- 28.1. Introduction -- 28.2. Land Information Systems -- 28.3. GIS Data Sources and Classifications -- 28.4. Spatial Data -- 28.5. Nonspatial Data -- 28.6. Data Format Conversions -- 28.7. Creating GIS Databases -- 28.8. Metadata -- 28.9. GIS Analytical Functions -- 28.10. GIS Applications -- 28.11. Data Sources -- Problems -- Bibliography -- APPENDIX A TAPE CORRECTION PROBLEMS -- A.1. Correcting Systematic Errors in Taping -- APPENDIX B EXAMPLE NOTEFORMS -- APPENDIX C ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS -- C.1. Introduction -- C.2. Overview of Usual Procedures for Astronomical Azimuth Determination -- C.3. Ephemerides -- C.4. Definitions -- C.5. Time -- C.6. Timing Observations -- C.7. Computations for Azimuth from Polaris Observations by the Hour Angle Method -- C.8. Azimuth from Solar Observations -- C.9. Importance of Precise Leveling -- APPENDIX D USING THE WORKSHEETS FROM THE COMPANION WEBSITE -- D.1. Introduction -- D.2. Using the Files -- D.3. Worksheets as an Aid in Learning -- APPENDIX E INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES -- E.1. Introduction -- E.2. Definition of a Matrix -- E.3. The Dimensions of a Marix -- E.4. The Transpose of a Matrix -- E.5. Matrix Addition -- E.6. Matrix Multiplication -- E.7. Matrix Inverse -- APPENDIX F U.S. STATE PLANE COORDINATE SYSTEM DEFINING PARAMETERS -- F.1. Introduction -- F.2. Defining Parameters for States Using the Lambert Conformal Conic Map Projection -- F.3. Defining Parameters for States Using the Transverse Mercator Map Projection -- APPENDIX G ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS.

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